Geography

Question

This piglix contains articles or sub-piglix about Geography

Answer 1

Alluvium

Alluvium (from the Latin, alluvius, from alluere, "to wash against") is loose, unconsolidated (not cemented together into a solid rock) soil or sediments, which has been eroded, reshaped by water in some form, and redeposited in a non-marine setting. Alluvium is typically made up of a variety of materials, including fine particles of silt and clay and larger particles of sand and gravel. When this loose alluvial material is deposited or cemented into a lithological unit, or lithified, it is called an alluvial deposit.

The term "alluvium" is not typically used in situations where the formation of the sediment can clearly be attributed to another geologic process that is well described. This includes (but is not limited to): lake sediments (lacustrine), river sediments (fluvial), or glacially-derived sediments (glacial till). Sediments that are formed or deposited in a perennial stream or river are typically not referred to as alluvial. it is also called alluvial soil

Most alluvium is geologically very young (Quaternary in age), and is often referred to as "cover" because these sediments obscure the underlying bedrock. Most sedimentary material that fills a basin ("basin fill") that is not lithified is typically lumped together as "alluvial". Alluvium of Pliocene age occurs, for example, in parts of Idaho. Alluvium of late Miocene age occurs, for example, in the valley of the San Joaquin River, California.

Alluvium can contain valuable ores such as gold and platinum and a wide variety of gemstones. Such a concentration of valuable ores is termed a placer deposit.

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Answer 2

Anatopism

An anatopism (from the Greek ανα, "against," and τόπος, "place") is something that is out of its proper place. Thus, for example, an outrigger canoe would be an anatopism in Madrid.

The concept of anatopism is less widely familiar than that of anachronism, perhaps because much that is anatopistic is also anachronistic. Yet the distinction is a valid one; not all that is anatopistic is necessarily also anachronistic.

The online Collins English Dictionary gives a synonym for "anatopism": anachorism (from Greek: ana- + khōros, "place"): "a geographical misplacement; something located in an incongruent position".

Catherine Hardwicke's 2006 film The Nativity Story shows a field of maize in a Nazareth farming scene. Maize is native to Mesoamerica, not to the Middle East, and in pre-Columbian times was grown only in the Americas. The use of maize in this film is an anatopism as well as an anachronism.

The same anatopism appears in the first part ("The Warrior Pharaohs") of a three-part 2002 PBS documentary series on "Egypt's Golden Empire" depicting the history of ancient Egypt's New Kingdom: ears of maize corn are shown in a scene recreating the battle and siege of Megiddo in the 15th century BCE.

Ridley Scott's 2000 film, Gladiator, set in 180 CE, features Roman soldiers riding horses using saddles with stirrups. While the Romans had had saddles since about 100 BCE, and stirrups had existed in the world since about 700 BCE, stirrups did not appear in Europe until about the 6th or 7th century CE, making them both anatopic and anachronistic.

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Answer 3

Draft:Beetlebug Lake

Beetlebug Lake is a subalpine lake in the center of the Sierra Nevada mountain range. The surface of the lake is at approximately 9640' AMSL and is in Fresno County, California. Category:Geography Category:Sierra Nevada (U.S.) Category:Lakes

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Answer 4

Boundary problem (spatial analysis)

A boundary problem in spatial analysis is a phenomenon in which geographical patterns are differentiated by the shape and arrangement of boundaries that are drawn for administrative or measurement purposes. This is distinct from and must not be confused with the boundary problem in the philosophy of science that is also called the demarcation problem.

In spatial analysis, four major problems interfere with an accurate estimation of the statistical parameter: the boundary problem, scale problem, pattern problem (or ), and modifiable areal unit problem (Barber 1988). The boundary problem occurs because of the loss of neighbours in analyses that depend on the values of the neighbours. While geographic phenomena are measured and analyzed within a specific unit, identical spatial data can appear either dispersed or clustered depending on the boundary placed around the data. In analysis with point data, dispersion is evaluated as dependent of the boundary. In analysis with area data, statistics should be interpreted based upon the boundary.

In geographical research, two types of areas are taken into consideration in relation to the boundary: an area surrounded by fixed natural boundaries (e.g., coastlines or streams), outside of which neighbours do not exist (Henley 1981), or an area included in a larger region defined by arbitrary artificial boundaries (e.g., an air pollution boundary in modeling studies or an urban boundary in population migration) (Haining 1990). In an area isolated by the natural boundaries, the spatial process discontinues at the boundaries. In contrast, if a study area is delineated by the artificial boundaries, the process continues beyond the area.

If a spatial process in an area occurs beyond a study area or has an interaction with neighbours outside artificial boundaries, the most common approach is to neglect the influence of the boundaries and assume that the process occurs at the internal area. However, such an approach leads to a significant model misspecification problem (Upton and Fingleton 1985).

That is, for measurement or administrative purposes, geographic boundaries are drawn, but the boundaries per se can bring about different spatial patterns in geographic phenomena (BESR 2002). It has been reported that the difference in the way of drawing the boundary significantly affects identification of the spatial distribution and estimation of the statistical parameters of the spatial process (Cressie 1992; Fotheringham and Rogerson 1993; Griffith 1983; Martin 1987). The difference is largely based on the fact that spatial processes are generally unbounded or fuzzy-bounded (Leung 1987) but the processes are expressed in data imposed within boundaries for analysis purposes (Miller 1999). Although the boundary problem was discussed in relation to artificial and arbitrary boundaries, the effect of the boundaries also occurs according to natural boundaries as long as it is ignored that properties at sites on the natural boundary such as streams are likely to differ from those at sites within the boundary (Martin 1989).

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Answer 5

Caribmap

Caribmap is a non-profit online library of historical and modern maps, including topographic maps, of the Caribbean islands. Since its establishment in 1999, the site has accumulated approximately 1800 maps of the islands that have been printed since the beginning of the 16th century The purpose of the site is to allow users, such as historians and scientists, to gain detailed information, including place names, from the high resolution map scans. For this, it uses a zoomable user interface (ZUI), Deep Zoom, so that the scale of the viewed area can be changed.

Caribmap is created and directed by a scientist, S. Blair Hedges, who is responsible for managing all content. It has received large donations of map images from public and private institutions such as the Branner Earth Sciences Library & Map Collections of Stanford University, the Norman B. Leventhal Map Center at the Boston Public Library, the Perry-Castañeda Library of the University of Texas at Austin, and the George A. Smathers Libraries of the University of Florida.

Caribmap encompasses the geographic range of the Caribbean Sea and its islands, including those bordering the Middle and South American mainland, such as the Bay Islands of Honduras, ABC Islands (Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao), Trinidad, and Tobago. The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands are also incorporated due to their cultural, economic, and historic links to the Caribbean islands.

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Answer 6

Easting and northing

The terms easting and northing are geographic Cartesian coordinates for a point. Easting refers to the eastward-measured distance (or the x-coordinate), while northing refers to the northward-measured distance (or the y-coordinate). When using common projections such as the transverse Mercator projection, these are distances projected on an imaginary surface similar to a bent sheet of paper, and are not the same as distances measured on the curved surface of the Earth.

Easting and northing coordinates are commonly measured in metres from the axes of some horizontal datum. However, other units (e.g., survey feet) are also used. The coordinates are most commonly associated with the Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system (UTM), which has unique zones that cover the Earth to provide detailed referencing.

Locations can be found using easting/northing (or x, y) pairs. The pair is usually represented conventionally with easting first, northing second.

For example, the peak of Mount Assiniboine (at 50°52′10″N 115°39′03″W / 50.86944°N 115.65083°W / 50.86944; -115.65083) in UTM Zone 11 is represented by 11U 594934 5636174. Other conventions can also be used, such as a truncated grid reference, which would shorten the example coordinates to 949-361.

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Answer 7

Distance decay

Distance decay is a geographical term which describes the effect of distance on cultural or spatial interactions. The distance decay effect states that the interaction between two locales declines as the distance between them increases. Once the distance is outside of the two locales' activity space, their interactions begin to decrease.

With the advent of faster travel, distance has less effect than it did in the past, except where places previously well-connected by railroads, for example, have fallen off the beaten path. Advances in communications technology, such as telegraphs, telephones, broadcasting, and internet, have further decreased the effects of distance.

Distance decay is graphically represented by a curving line that swoops concavely downward as distance along the x-axis increases. Distance decay can be mathematically represented as an Inverse-square law by the expression

I=const.×<!-- × -->d−<!-- − -->2{\displaystyle I=const.\times d^{-2}} or I∝<!-- ∝ -->1/d2{\displaystyle I\propto 1/d^{2}},

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Answer 8

City marketing

City marketing (related to city branding) is the promotion of a city, or a district within it, with the aim of encouraging certain activities to take place there. It is used to alter the external perceptions of a city in order to encourage tourism, attract inward migration of residents, or enable business relocation. A significant feature of city marketing is the development of new landmark, or 'flagship', buildings and structures. The development of cities as a marketable product has led to competition between them for inward investment and government funding. It is often manifested in the attempts by cities to attract international sporting events, such as the Olympic Games. Competition between cities exists at the regional, national and international level; and is an effect of globalisation.
Some places are associated with certain brands and build on each other, but sometimes the commercial brand is so powerful that eclipses the place brand.

City marketing can occur strategically or organically. An example of strategic city marketing is Las Vegas. The city is promoted through a variety of efforts with the strategic intent of acquiring cultural and economic bonuses. A case of organic city marketing is Jerusalem. The city is marketed without a grand strategy, as disorganized stakeholders over the course of centuries have glorified the city and encouraged pilgrimage, yielding cultural and economic bonuses. Both cases demonstrate city marketing, each with varying strategic and organic involvement. Generally, organic marketing occurs alongside strategic marketing, as the perception of the city is rather impossible to solely construct with strategic efforts.

According to Scott Cutlip, "one of the first, if not the first, municipal promotion programs" was led by Erastus Brainerd for the city of Seattle beginning in 1896. Seattle was in competition with Portland and Victoria as the preferred city in which to get supplied for the Klondike Gold Rush. A Bureau of Public Information was established within the city’s Chamber of Commerce.

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Answer 9

Digital orthophoto quadrangle

A digital orthophoto quadrangle (DOQ) is aerial photography or satellite imagery that has been corrected so that its pixels are aligned with longitude and latitude lines, and have a narrowly defined region of coverage. This is a widely used format introduced by United States Geological Survey (USGS). The correction technique is called image rectification and is a large part of photogrammetry.

DOQs produced by the USGS cover an area measuring 7.5-minutes longitude by 7.5-minutes latitude (the same area covered by a USGS 1:24,000-scale topographic map, also known as a 7.5-minute quadrangle) or 3.75-minutes by 3.75-minutes. The second format is also known as a digital orthophoto quarter quadrangle (DOQQ) because each covers one quarter of a quadrangle (four 1:12,000-scale DOQQs display the same area as one 1:24,000-scale DOQ).

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Answer 10

Economic restructuring

Economic restructuring refers to the phenomenon of Western urban areas shifting from a manufacturing to a service sector economic base. This transformation has affected demographics including income distribution, employment, and social hierarchy; institutional arrangements including the growth of the corporate complex, specialized producer services, capital mobility, informal economy, nonstandard work, and public outlays; as well as geographic spacing including the rise of world cities, spatial mismatch, and metropolitan growth differentials.

As cities experience a loss of manufacturing jobs and growth of services, sociologist Saskia Sassen affirms that a widening of the social hierarchy occurs where high-level, high-income, salaried professional jobs expands in the service industries alongside a greater incidence of low-wage, low-skilled jobs, usually filled by immigrants and minorities. A "missing middle" eventually develops in the wage structure. Several effects of this social polarization include the increasing concentration of the poor, blacks, and Hispanics in large U.S. cities and distinct social forms such as the underclass, informal economy, and entrepreneurial immigrant communities. In addition, the declining manufacturing sector leaves behind strained blue-collared workers who endure chronic unemployment, economic insecurity, and stagnation due to the global economy's capital flight. Wages and unionization rates for manufacturing jobs also decline. One other qualitative dimension involves the feminization of the job supply as more and more women enter the labor force usually in the service sector.

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